Writing academically is a challenging task which involves a high level of expertise, since the main purpose is to construct knowledge in “an organized, structured way” (MSc Study Skills Guide, n.d.). Hence, only individuals who possess in-depth and specialist knowledge are the major contributors. Summary writing is a particular genre which entails experience as well as the appropriate use of some typical characteristics, such as a considerable proficiency in language use, formal style and register (Pintos, 2008).
Below is a summary written by a student in which different features will be analysed and discussed:
In Reid’s (1994, cited in Pintos, 2008) book “The Process of Paragraph Writing", she describes the main characteristics of a summary. The author claims that the general purpose of a summary is to give a limited amount of information to a specific audience.
However, summary writing is not an easy task. In order to write an accurate summary, you not only have to extract the main ideas but you also have to be capable of expressing these main ideas, trying to avoid repeating the exact phrases of the original material. Moreover, good summaries are clear and balanced. That is to say, the reader should not find difficulties in understanding the main ideas of the material.
The reader is prone to feel somewhat confused after reading this summary since the structure may be inadequate and discourse markers have been misused. In addition, some academic rules have not been respected, the choice of reporting verbs is not the appropriate one and the introductory phrase does not follow the APA (American Psychological Association) Style.
With reference to the use of the reporting verb “claim”, it does not seem to be the most suitable verb in this context, as the verb means to state that something is true although it has not been proved. The choice of another reporting verb might have proved more efficient, for instance “assert” or “state”, which are closer in meaning to what Reid (1994, cited in Pintos, 2008) denoted.
In-text citation enriches academic writing since, “[f]irst, it allows instructors to check the accuracy of your research. Second, it gives your readers the opportunity to find additional related information. Most importantly, citing sources gives credit for the research and theories that you [are] citing to the people who [have] created them” (Scott, n.d.). However, the student did not use in-text citations making the summary seem less academic. When quotations are too long, resorting to the use of ellipses, that is to say, the omission of a part of a paragraph or the use of insertions of words between square brackets become effective tools (Pintos, 2008).
All these remarks followed by the analysis of the summary clearly reveal how difficult and ineffective writing an academic summary may be unless all the academic rules are borne in mind. Not only must the person who writes a summary have an excellent command of the foreign language but also have a deep knowledge of the rules applied in academic writing contexts.
References
MSc Study Skills Guide (n.d.). Oxford Brookes University. Oxford. UK. Retrieved October 1st, 2009, from http://www.brookes.ac.uk/schools/social /psych/handbooks/studyskills/Study%20Skills%20Guides_13.htm
Pintos, V. (2008). Unit 3: Academic Writing. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Scott, B. (n.d). APA Citations: How to Cite Sources Inside APA Style Text. Retrieved October 4th, 2009, from http://www.lousywriter.com/writingstyles /apa-citation-how-to-cite-sources-in-apa.php
Sunday, 20 December 2009
Analysing the effectiveness of a summary
Summaries may have different purposes and a great variety of audiences such as academic and non academic. According to Reid (1994), summaries are brief descriptions “of the main ideas or actions” (as cited in Pintos, 2008, p. 15).
Summaries must be well balanced and include an introduction, a body and a conclusion. As well as this, it is worth mentioning that the three main sections must contain a topic sentence followed by a supporting sentence, generally introduced by a linking word or phrase, and a concluding sentence, which gives a finished feeling to the paragraph.
As Kinsella (n.d.) states, there are a number of steps to bear in mind when writing an academic summary:
1. Read the selection carefully, more than once.
2. Highlight the most important points, leaving out secondary and minor details.
3. Make a brief outline of the essential information.
4. Identify the main idea, and write it first.
5. Include only the most important points; omit unnecessary details
6. Don’t repeat ideas or alter the author’s meaning.
7. Use your own wording, except for key content words related to the main topic.
8. Don’t include your own ideas or comments.
9. Mention the source, the specific genre, and the author at the beginning.
10. Present the ideas in the order in which they were discussed in the selection.
11. Introduce the author’s keys points by using citation expressions (e.g., according to…).
12. Include enough information so that someone who has not read the selection would get an accurate understanding of the major points.
However, summarising may become a challenging task for students who have not have been trained in this field. Below is a summary written by a student and it will be analysed by underlining the topic sentence, circling the connectors, deciding how effective they are for the reader and finally some questions will be posed to prove the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of the summary.
In her book “The Process of Paragraph Writing", Reid (1994) describes the main
characteristics of a summary. The author claims that the general purpose of a summary
is to give a limited amount of information to a specific audience.
However, summary writing is not an easy task. In order to write an accurate summary,
you not only have to extract the main ideas but you also have to be capable of expressing these main ideas, trying to avoid repeating the exact phrases of the original material. Moreover, good summaries are clear and balanced. That is to say, the reader should not find difficulties in understanding the main ideas of the material.
As it is can be seen, the summary contains no supporting sentence immediately after the topic sentence. A supporting sentence should enhance, clarify and support the main idea mentioned in the topic sentence.
As for the structure of the summary, it is really difficult to identify the body and the conclusion in the manner it has been presented.
• The introduction is represented by the topic sentence but the student fails to support it; he/she may well have succeeded if he/she had provided more details related to the topic sentence.
• The students later shifts to the linking word “however”, which is used to contrast ideas although in fact he/she is not contrasting his/her idea to any other one mentioned before.
• The use of “not only… but also” is properly used since he/she is giving additional information connected with his/her previous sentence.
• The conclusion is not properly introduced since the student used an inappropriate discourse marker. The discourse marker “moreover”, used to give additional information, can never close a piece of writing. This connector and sentence misleads the reader as he/she expects to receive additional information rather than the closing of the writing. The student may have made use of other discourse markers, such as all in all, in conclusion, etc. to conclude his/her summary.
• Last but not least, the student used the linking phrase “that is to say”, which is used to give more details or clarify something mentioned before. There is no clear connection between his/her previous sentence of clarity and balance and the fact of finding difficulties in understanding the main ideas of the material.
This clearly shows the ineffectiveness of the summary due to wrong organisation and misuse of discourse markers. As some ideas remain dangling and confusing, some questions might be posed:
• What are the main characteristics mentioned in the student’s summary?
• What kind of different audiences could be mentioned?
• What is meant by “clear and balanced”?
The three topic sentences below were extracted from three paragraphs in Unit 3: Academic Writing by Pintos, 2008, p. 7. The aim of these sentences is to persuade a specific audience to read the rest of the text.
• Academic writing is a type of writing which involves constructing knowledge rather than translating it.
• Constructing knowledge entails bearing in mind some basic characteristics.
• Foreign language students must learn some techniques in the target language in order to participate in discourse communities.
Not only is summarising a cognitive practice but also a detailed textual analysis. During the summarising procedure the text is shortened, which implies a mental process, and the reduction is simultaneously presented as a new text. Hence, summarising needs to be carefully practised and exercised to prove effective.
References
Kinsella, K. (n.d.). Steps in creating an Academic Summary. Retrieved September 28th, 2009, from http://www.srvhs.srvusd.k12.ca.us/Staff/teachers/rtong /Handouts/Academic%20Summary%20-%20How%20to%20Create.doc
Pintos, V. (2008). Unit 3: Academic Writing. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Summaries must be well balanced and include an introduction, a body and a conclusion. As well as this, it is worth mentioning that the three main sections must contain a topic sentence followed by a supporting sentence, generally introduced by a linking word or phrase, and a concluding sentence, which gives a finished feeling to the paragraph.
As Kinsella (n.d.) states, there are a number of steps to bear in mind when writing an academic summary:
1. Read the selection carefully, more than once.
2. Highlight the most important points, leaving out secondary and minor details.
3. Make a brief outline of the essential information.
4. Identify the main idea, and write it first.
5. Include only the most important points; omit unnecessary details
6. Don’t repeat ideas or alter the author’s meaning.
7. Use your own wording, except for key content words related to the main topic.
8. Don’t include your own ideas or comments.
9. Mention the source, the specific genre, and the author at the beginning.
10. Present the ideas in the order in which they were discussed in the selection.
11. Introduce the author’s keys points by using citation expressions (e.g., according to…).
12. Include enough information so that someone who has not read the selection would get an accurate understanding of the major points.
However, summarising may become a challenging task for students who have not have been trained in this field. Below is a summary written by a student and it will be analysed by underlining the topic sentence, circling the connectors, deciding how effective they are for the reader and finally some questions will be posed to prove the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of the summary.
In her book “The Process of Paragraph Writing", Reid (1994) describes the main
characteristics of a summary. The author claims that the general purpose of a summary
is to give a limited amount of information to a specific audience.
However, summary writing is not an easy task. In order to write an accurate summary,
you not only have to extract the main ideas but you also have to be capable of expressing these main ideas, trying to avoid repeating the exact phrases of the original material. Moreover, good summaries are clear and balanced. That is to say, the reader should not find difficulties in understanding the main ideas of the material.
As it is can be seen, the summary contains no supporting sentence immediately after the topic sentence. A supporting sentence should enhance, clarify and support the main idea mentioned in the topic sentence.
As for the structure of the summary, it is really difficult to identify the body and the conclusion in the manner it has been presented.
• The introduction is represented by the topic sentence but the student fails to support it; he/she may well have succeeded if he/she had provided more details related to the topic sentence.
• The students later shifts to the linking word “however”, which is used to contrast ideas although in fact he/she is not contrasting his/her idea to any other one mentioned before.
• The use of “not only… but also” is properly used since he/she is giving additional information connected with his/her previous sentence.
• The conclusion is not properly introduced since the student used an inappropriate discourse marker. The discourse marker “moreover”, used to give additional information, can never close a piece of writing. This connector and sentence misleads the reader as he/she expects to receive additional information rather than the closing of the writing. The student may have made use of other discourse markers, such as all in all, in conclusion, etc. to conclude his/her summary.
• Last but not least, the student used the linking phrase “that is to say”, which is used to give more details or clarify something mentioned before. There is no clear connection between his/her previous sentence of clarity and balance and the fact of finding difficulties in understanding the main ideas of the material.
This clearly shows the ineffectiveness of the summary due to wrong organisation and misuse of discourse markers. As some ideas remain dangling and confusing, some questions might be posed:
• What are the main characteristics mentioned in the student’s summary?
• What kind of different audiences could be mentioned?
• What is meant by “clear and balanced”?
The three topic sentences below were extracted from three paragraphs in Unit 3: Academic Writing by Pintos, 2008, p. 7. The aim of these sentences is to persuade a specific audience to read the rest of the text.
• Academic writing is a type of writing which involves constructing knowledge rather than translating it.
• Constructing knowledge entails bearing in mind some basic characteristics.
• Foreign language students must learn some techniques in the target language in order to participate in discourse communities.
Not only is summarising a cognitive practice but also a detailed textual analysis. During the summarising procedure the text is shortened, which implies a mental process, and the reduction is simultaneously presented as a new text. Hence, summarising needs to be carefully practised and exercised to prove effective.
References
Kinsella, K. (n.d.). Steps in creating an Academic Summary. Retrieved September 28th, 2009, from http://www.srvhs.srvusd.k12.ca.us/Staff/teachers/rtong /Handouts/Academic%20Summary%20-%20How%20to%20Create.doc
Pintos, V. (2008). Unit 3: Academic Writing. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina.
The critical incident technique as a qualitative study
In view of the serious outgrowth of critical phenomena in our society, the analysis of the possible factors which trigger critically social cases has today become a serious issue in different fields.
The Critical Incident Technique (CIT) could be defined as a method of gathering human behavioural facts for later interpretation in order to take key as well as effective decisions in the area studied.
According to Flanagan (1954), he stated that “[the] critical incident technique consists of a set of procedures for collecting direct observations of human behaviour in such a way as to facilitate their potential usefulness in solving practical problems and developing broad psychological principles.” (para. 2)
An incident is regarded as any event which has affected or might affect the normal development of a social activity. It is worth mentioning that a critical event does not necessarily need to be dramatic but an event which has a substantial impact and poses some inconvenience for society. Human behaviour tends to be unpredictable although it has for long been observed and studied. Highly trained and competent observers are responsible for this fact-finding mission and they have for centuries monitored human behaviour as well as carefully noted down the results of their observations, whose prime aim is to hinder subsequent unfolding crises.
In order to carry out a CIT research, a number of steps are to be taken into account. Data collection is one of the critical steps in this process. CIT does not consist of a single inflexible set of rules for collecting information. On the contrary, it should be regarded as a pliable method which is to be adapted or modified according to the specific situations to be analysed. Nevertheless, there exist a number of other crucial steps which precede the gathering of facts. The formulation and description of the study is the basis of the process. In other words, before the research commences, there must be a clear general aim sensibly and suitably sketched which will lead the activity and help avoid possible deviations from the investigation. Although there is no technique better than other, the careful and right choice of the methodology to follow is indispensable and fundamental as the evaluation and final report would be unattainable without a proper identification of the aim. There are three basic steps to be taken into account before qualified authorities formulate the general aim in order to collect data (Flanagan, 1954):
1. To make a brief statement or formulate the hypothesis which will guide the study.
2. To accomplish a well-defined purpose.
3. To outline the general steps included in the investigation.
These steps are to be executed by those expert participants who will take part in the study after they have obtained precise information and instructions from the authorities in the field.
Once the general aims have been defined, observers are prepared to start collecting data. The gathering of data could be carried out through the internet, surveys, telephone calls or by using participant observers. Participant observation is extremely valuable as better comprehension can be obtained directly from the fields to which those people being observed belong. Furthermore, this method is highly important as observers are allowed to contextualise the problems studied. However, there are potential risks which cannot be disregarded when this method is used. Observers may lose objectivity when recording their actual observations due to the fact that they may become emotionally involved when analysing thorny dilemmas. Another factor which is likely to develop into more of a hindrance is the role of the observer’s memory. More often than not memory can fail and, thus, observation would cast doubt on validity. Consequently, this method may sometimes be unsuitable to collect and analyse the relevant aspects of the situation (Polit & Beck, 2008, p. 409).
Deciding which method is to be applied when it comes to collecting data in CIT has always posed a difficult question. Yet, there are four main procedures frequently followed (Pintos, 2008):
• Interviews: this technique consists of responding to detailed questionnaires containing closed or open questions. The usage of closed questions does not make the interviewee feel forced to reveal much information since the answers will be offered in either a single word or phrase whereas open questions deliberately seek longer answers. Notwithstanding these differences, it is fundamental for the interviewer to inform the interviewee the anonymity of the data provided.
• Group interviews: due to the high cost of carrying out personalised interviews, group interviews have been developed to replace individual interviews. One of the advantages of this technique is that interviewers have the possibility of addressing a larger audience and give them the opportunity for questions before they start to give their answers in a specially prepared form. Furthermore, candidates may be required to work in teams and given a work-related task to perform while each candidate’s participation is closely observed and noted ("What to expect", n.d.).
• Questionnaires: if the group to be interviewed becomes too large, questionnaires are the most appropriate technique to receive answers from respondents as the questionnaire can be mailed or handed in to each group or interviewee. This technique does not require much effort from the questioner as forms are composed of standardised questions.
• Record forms: this procedure is followed by means of written records. There are two varieties of recording: one is to record details as they occur at the right moment and the other is to record incidents on specially designed forms by placing a tally in the appropriate place.
Once the process of data collection has finished, the next step is to analyse and interpret the data to report the requirements of the activity studied. This last but not least step is probably the most tedious and complex stage as a large number of data is being manipulated.
In educational fields the use of questionnaires might be applicable as the most appropriate technique, since by means of well-designed forms, data in large quantities can be easily collected and later analysed.
To conclude, CIT, thus, consists of collection and later compilation of data over a period of time to learn from experience and prevent future accidents or emergency situations which may seriously damage a system. Not only might CIT be considered a useful method which helps trace and find solutions to pertinent problems in different fields but also, due to its low cost, one of the most widely chosen techniques by companies and institutions.
References
Byrne, B. (2001). AORN Journal. Retrieved October 2nd, 2009, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FSL/is_4_74/ai_80159552/
Flanagan, J. C. (1954). The Critical Incident Technique. Psychological Bulletin. American Institute for Research and University of Pittsburgh. 51(4).
Polit, D., & Beck, C. (8th edition, 2008). Nursing Research: generating and assessing for nursing practice. Retrieved October 2nd, 2009, from
http://books.google.com.ar/books?id=Ej3wstotgkQC&pg=PA409&lpg=PA409&dq=objectivity+in+analysing+data&source=bl&ots=wdNxCNaDBl&sig=XK9rTe3EYVW7cfoGxAm0x4Jvbe4&hl=es&ei=RwGlSvzvN5ez8QacsO3SDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10#v=onepage&q=&f=false
What to expect in group interviews. (n.d.). Retrieved October 4, 2009, from http://www.best-job-interview.com/group-interviews.html
The Critical Incident Technique (CIT) could be defined as a method of gathering human behavioural facts for later interpretation in order to take key as well as effective decisions in the area studied.
According to Flanagan (1954), he stated that “[the] critical incident technique consists of a set of procedures for collecting direct observations of human behaviour in such a way as to facilitate their potential usefulness in solving practical problems and developing broad psychological principles.” (para. 2)
An incident is regarded as any event which has affected or might affect the normal development of a social activity. It is worth mentioning that a critical event does not necessarily need to be dramatic but an event which has a substantial impact and poses some inconvenience for society. Human behaviour tends to be unpredictable although it has for long been observed and studied. Highly trained and competent observers are responsible for this fact-finding mission and they have for centuries monitored human behaviour as well as carefully noted down the results of their observations, whose prime aim is to hinder subsequent unfolding crises.
In order to carry out a CIT research, a number of steps are to be taken into account. Data collection is one of the critical steps in this process. CIT does not consist of a single inflexible set of rules for collecting information. On the contrary, it should be regarded as a pliable method which is to be adapted or modified according to the specific situations to be analysed. Nevertheless, there exist a number of other crucial steps which precede the gathering of facts. The formulation and description of the study is the basis of the process. In other words, before the research commences, there must be a clear general aim sensibly and suitably sketched which will lead the activity and help avoid possible deviations from the investigation. Although there is no technique better than other, the careful and right choice of the methodology to follow is indispensable and fundamental as the evaluation and final report would be unattainable without a proper identification of the aim. There are three basic steps to be taken into account before qualified authorities formulate the general aim in order to collect data (Flanagan, 1954):
1. To make a brief statement or formulate the hypothesis which will guide the study.
2. To accomplish a well-defined purpose.
3. To outline the general steps included in the investigation.
These steps are to be executed by those expert participants who will take part in the study after they have obtained precise information and instructions from the authorities in the field.
Once the general aims have been defined, observers are prepared to start collecting data. The gathering of data could be carried out through the internet, surveys, telephone calls or by using participant observers. Participant observation is extremely valuable as better comprehension can be obtained directly from the fields to which those people being observed belong. Furthermore, this method is highly important as observers are allowed to contextualise the problems studied. However, there are potential risks which cannot be disregarded when this method is used. Observers may lose objectivity when recording their actual observations due to the fact that they may become emotionally involved when analysing thorny dilemmas. Another factor which is likely to develop into more of a hindrance is the role of the observer’s memory. More often than not memory can fail and, thus, observation would cast doubt on validity. Consequently, this method may sometimes be unsuitable to collect and analyse the relevant aspects of the situation (Polit & Beck, 2008, p. 409).
Deciding which method is to be applied when it comes to collecting data in CIT has always posed a difficult question. Yet, there are four main procedures frequently followed (Pintos, 2008):
• Interviews: this technique consists of responding to detailed questionnaires containing closed or open questions. The usage of closed questions does not make the interviewee feel forced to reveal much information since the answers will be offered in either a single word or phrase whereas open questions deliberately seek longer answers. Notwithstanding these differences, it is fundamental for the interviewer to inform the interviewee the anonymity of the data provided.
• Group interviews: due to the high cost of carrying out personalised interviews, group interviews have been developed to replace individual interviews. One of the advantages of this technique is that interviewers have the possibility of addressing a larger audience and give them the opportunity for questions before they start to give their answers in a specially prepared form. Furthermore, candidates may be required to work in teams and given a work-related task to perform while each candidate’s participation is closely observed and noted ("What to expect", n.d.).
• Questionnaires: if the group to be interviewed becomes too large, questionnaires are the most appropriate technique to receive answers from respondents as the questionnaire can be mailed or handed in to each group or interviewee. This technique does not require much effort from the questioner as forms are composed of standardised questions.
• Record forms: this procedure is followed by means of written records. There are two varieties of recording: one is to record details as they occur at the right moment and the other is to record incidents on specially designed forms by placing a tally in the appropriate place.
Once the process of data collection has finished, the next step is to analyse and interpret the data to report the requirements of the activity studied. This last but not least step is probably the most tedious and complex stage as a large number of data is being manipulated.
In educational fields the use of questionnaires might be applicable as the most appropriate technique, since by means of well-designed forms, data in large quantities can be easily collected and later analysed.
To conclude, CIT, thus, consists of collection and later compilation of data over a period of time to learn from experience and prevent future accidents or emergency situations which may seriously damage a system. Not only might CIT be considered a useful method which helps trace and find solutions to pertinent problems in different fields but also, due to its low cost, one of the most widely chosen techniques by companies and institutions.
References
Byrne, B. (2001). AORN Journal. Retrieved October 2nd, 2009, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FSL/is_4_74/ai_80159552/
Flanagan, J. C. (1954). The Critical Incident Technique. Psychological Bulletin. American Institute for Research and University of Pittsburgh. 51(4).
Polit, D., & Beck, C. (8th edition, 2008). Nursing Research: generating and assessing for nursing practice. Retrieved October 2nd, 2009, from
http://books.google.com.ar/books?id=Ej3wstotgkQC&pg=PA409&lpg=PA409&dq=objectivity+in+analysing+data&source=bl&ots=wdNxCNaDBl&sig=XK9rTe3EYVW7cfoGxAm0x4Jvbe4&hl=es&ei=RwGlSvzvN5ez8QacsO3SDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10#v=onepage&q=&f=false
What to expect in group interviews. (n.d.). Retrieved October 4, 2009, from http://www.best-job-interview.com/group-interviews.html
The critical incident technique as one more tool in the educational field
Over the last few years a great number of disciplines have been using The Critical Incident Technique (CIT) to predict, detect and solve problems in different fields.
In the educational field, CIT is considered to be a tool to improve teaching during the pre-service and in-service practice (González, J., Escartin; N.; Pérez, M., 2003). This technique would allow educators to have the possibility of reflecting upon their methods and practices. According to Gil (1991) and Torre (1997), it is very often thought that any knowledgeable individual is prepared to stand in front of several students and conduct a class (cited in González, J., Escartin; N.; Pérez, M., 2003). The question which might be posed is: does any knowledgeable person know what to teach and how to teach it? In my personal experience the answer to that question would show that not any well-read person can cope with difficult class situations. Numerous leading and prestigious professionals will surely have great expertise in their discipline although they will probably fail to deliver a class as they are not familiar with classroom activities and students’ needs.
I personally regard the CIT as an extremely useful tool when it comes to dealing with crucial issues in school classes. A few months ago, I was made aware that a student of mine kept refusing to participate in class whereas his classmates were active participants. At first I thought it was a problem of class adjustment. I presented this case to my colleagues and I discussed it with them, who claimed to have noticed the same attitude in the student’s behaviour. After predicting some possible causes, we decided to dig into my student’s problem.
During the last few years the idea of having the teacher as the centre of attention in the classroom has changed. The teacher is seen as a contributor and a facilitator who provides students with all the necessary tools to acquire knowledge. This view gives students the opportunity to become more autonomous in the cognitive process and not be dependent on the instructor for every single item to be learnt. The feeling of freedom and independence which a student experiences when s/he realises that the teacher is only guiding her/him is what will definitely make the student grow.
Nevertheless, educators must be well trained to successfully accompany their students’ guidance.
After several months of hard work and reflection upon the possible causes of my student’s behaviour in class, my colleagues and I came to the conclusion that he was not only too shy to interact with his mates but he also had a lack of self-confidence which prevented him from working on his own.
This conclusion made my colleagues and me raise the question of the need to partially change our technique in class. It was crystal clear that this particular student did not respond in the same manner as all the others did. It was evident that he could not work if he was not guided in his learning process.
Educators who are highly trained in preparing, planning, observing class behaviour and responses are the ones who will accomplish their mission more successfully. I go along with the idea that CIT prepares educators to cope with almost any unexpected situation in the classroom, analyse its possible reasons and find possible solutions.
Many possible responses to all these problems which are found in many of today’s classrooms can be answered by CIT. However, every individual is different and a list of endless answers might be given or suggested to resolve these complicated problems. It is the skilled teacher who should be responsible for interpreting and elucidating the major and crucial points within a classroom.
Reference
González, J.; Escartin, N.; Pérez, M. (2003). Los Incidentes Críticos en la Formación y Perfeccionamiento del Profesorado de Secundaria en Ciencias de la Naturaleza. Revista Universitaria de Formación de Profesorado, 17(17). Universidad de Zaragoza, España.
In the educational field, CIT is considered to be a tool to improve teaching during the pre-service and in-service practice (González, J., Escartin; N.; Pérez, M., 2003). This technique would allow educators to have the possibility of reflecting upon their methods and practices. According to Gil (1991) and Torre (1997), it is very often thought that any knowledgeable individual is prepared to stand in front of several students and conduct a class (cited in González, J., Escartin; N.; Pérez, M., 2003). The question which might be posed is: does any knowledgeable person know what to teach and how to teach it? In my personal experience the answer to that question would show that not any well-read person can cope with difficult class situations. Numerous leading and prestigious professionals will surely have great expertise in their discipline although they will probably fail to deliver a class as they are not familiar with classroom activities and students’ needs.
I personally regard the CIT as an extremely useful tool when it comes to dealing with crucial issues in school classes. A few months ago, I was made aware that a student of mine kept refusing to participate in class whereas his classmates were active participants. At first I thought it was a problem of class adjustment. I presented this case to my colleagues and I discussed it with them, who claimed to have noticed the same attitude in the student’s behaviour. After predicting some possible causes, we decided to dig into my student’s problem.
During the last few years the idea of having the teacher as the centre of attention in the classroom has changed. The teacher is seen as a contributor and a facilitator who provides students with all the necessary tools to acquire knowledge. This view gives students the opportunity to become more autonomous in the cognitive process and not be dependent on the instructor for every single item to be learnt. The feeling of freedom and independence which a student experiences when s/he realises that the teacher is only guiding her/him is what will definitely make the student grow.
Nevertheless, educators must be well trained to successfully accompany their students’ guidance.
After several months of hard work and reflection upon the possible causes of my student’s behaviour in class, my colleagues and I came to the conclusion that he was not only too shy to interact with his mates but he also had a lack of self-confidence which prevented him from working on his own.
This conclusion made my colleagues and me raise the question of the need to partially change our technique in class. It was crystal clear that this particular student did not respond in the same manner as all the others did. It was evident that he could not work if he was not guided in his learning process.
Educators who are highly trained in preparing, planning, observing class behaviour and responses are the ones who will accomplish their mission more successfully. I go along with the idea that CIT prepares educators to cope with almost any unexpected situation in the classroom, analyse its possible reasons and find possible solutions.
Many possible responses to all these problems which are found in many of today’s classrooms can be answered by CIT. However, every individual is different and a list of endless answers might be given or suggested to resolve these complicated problems. It is the skilled teacher who should be responsible for interpreting and elucidating the major and crucial points within a classroom.
Reference
González, J.; Escartin, N.; Pérez, M. (2003). Los Incidentes Críticos en la Formación y Perfeccionamiento del Profesorado de Secundaria en Ciencias de la Naturaleza. Revista Universitaria de Formación de Profesorado, 17(17). Universidad de Zaragoza, España.
Providing rural educators with professional development
Rural educators living in far-off places do not seem to acquire the same academic skills or find equal opportunities for professional development in the same way as those teachers residing in highly urbanized regions. Rural educators are bound to be excluded from a discourse community.
Some research sponsored wholly or in part by the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) was carried out to highlight the difference between rural and city teachers and schools in the USA. Regrettably, educators residing far away from educationally developed areas find themselves isolated and debarred from belonging to a discourse community. Professional development, as a consequence of receiving further academic education, to improve their quality of instruction is regarded as an unattainable dream or goal. This hindrance with which rural teachers are faced can be reflected in rural classrooms and consequently in students’ performance.
Howley, Aimee and Howley, Craig (2005) stated:
Policymakers and educators see professional development as a way to improve the quality of instruction in the classrooms across the nation (. . .) it would seem that the right kinds of professional development would improve instruction, and that better instruction would result in higher student achievement (para. 2).
High-ranking members belonging to a community discourse decide what policies are to be implemented and adopted by other low-ranking members of the same community. If rural teachers had better access to professional development, the instruction supplied in their classrooms would reflect on higher student achievement or performance.
Some of Swales’ basic criteria (1990) for a discourse community are clearly evident in Howley’s research paper:
Lave & Wenger, (1991); Wenger, (1998), as cited in Howley & Howley, (2005) stated that “learning must be situated” (para. 6).
According to Senge (1994), as cited in Howley & Howley (2005), “learning requires open and sustained dialogue members of the organization” (para. 6).
Choo (1998), as cited in Howley & Howley (2005) asserted that “learning depends upon the propensity to reflect on data about organizational performance” (para. 6)
Howley & Howley (2005) claim that educators who engage working in larger communities work in a collaborative fashion and share their work more widely.
Early efforts of this type-with names such as "peer coaching" and "collegial supervision” organized small groups of teachers to observe one another's instructional performance and provide feedback (Showers & Joyce, 1996, as cited in Howley & Howley, 2005, para. 8).
Bambino (2002), as cited in Howley & Howley (2005) stated that “teachers volunteer to join "critical friends groups," where they often use students' work to prompt discussions of teaching; sometimes these groups also collaborate to solve instructional problems (para. 9).
Intercommunication among teachers working together is a major factor so that information can be exchanged. “In many places, the small size of schools and districts promotes cooperation among teachers, enabling them to improve instruction in ways that develop naturally within the context of their daily practice” (Howley, A. & Howley, C.B, 2004; Howley, C.B. & Howley, A.A., 2004, as cited in Howley & Howley, 2005, para. 15)
Another distinctive feature within a discourse community is to have a group leader with a high level of expertise. The leader must be in constant communication with the other members of the community. According to Lattuca (2005), as cited in Howley & Howley (2005), “. . . leaders might seek to establish cross-disciplinary learning communities within a school, an approach of recognized difficulty in higher education” (para. 20).
Sherer, Shea & Kristensen (2003), as cited in Howley & Howley (2005) claimed that “[s]ome experimental programs in higher education, however, suggest that a more promising approach for K-12 educators might involve the establishment of virtual learning communities that foster collegial dialog among subject-matter specialists across the distances that physically separate them” (para. 20).
Howley (2005) referred to “[g]rounded in management approaches such as Total Quality Management, . . .” The author meant that by being grounded, that is to say, by being fully immersed in the topic and academic knowledge, some strategies can be developed to help rural educators into the process of gaining academic development.
Extensive reading and writing inevitably results in a more solid cognitive development in teachers. The opportunity to develop their interests and skills in academic contexts will unavoidably reflect on their instruction and accordingly their students’ performance will be improved.
Reference
Howley, A., & Howley, C. (2005). High-quality teaching: Providing for rural teachers' professional development.
Some research sponsored wholly or in part by the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) was carried out to highlight the difference between rural and city teachers and schools in the USA. Regrettably, educators residing far away from educationally developed areas find themselves isolated and debarred from belonging to a discourse community. Professional development, as a consequence of receiving further academic education, to improve their quality of instruction is regarded as an unattainable dream or goal. This hindrance with which rural teachers are faced can be reflected in rural classrooms and consequently in students’ performance.
Howley, Aimee and Howley, Craig (2005) stated:
Policymakers and educators see professional development as a way to improve the quality of instruction in the classrooms across the nation (. . .) it would seem that the right kinds of professional development would improve instruction, and that better instruction would result in higher student achievement (para. 2).
High-ranking members belonging to a community discourse decide what policies are to be implemented and adopted by other low-ranking members of the same community. If rural teachers had better access to professional development, the instruction supplied in their classrooms would reflect on higher student achievement or performance.
Some of Swales’ basic criteria (1990) for a discourse community are clearly evident in Howley’s research paper:
Lave & Wenger, (1991); Wenger, (1998), as cited in Howley & Howley, (2005) stated that “learning must be situated” (para. 6).
According to Senge (1994), as cited in Howley & Howley (2005), “learning requires open and sustained dialogue members of the organization” (para. 6).
Choo (1998), as cited in Howley & Howley (2005) asserted that “learning depends upon the propensity to reflect on data about organizational performance” (para. 6)
Howley & Howley (2005) claim that educators who engage working in larger communities work in a collaborative fashion and share their work more widely.
Early efforts of this type-with names such as "peer coaching" and "collegial supervision” organized small groups of teachers to observe one another's instructional performance and provide feedback (Showers & Joyce, 1996, as cited in Howley & Howley, 2005, para. 8).
Bambino (2002), as cited in Howley & Howley (2005) stated that “teachers volunteer to join "critical friends groups," where they often use students' work to prompt discussions of teaching; sometimes these groups also collaborate to solve instructional problems (para. 9).
Intercommunication among teachers working together is a major factor so that information can be exchanged. “In many places, the small size of schools and districts promotes cooperation among teachers, enabling them to improve instruction in ways that develop naturally within the context of their daily practice” (Howley, A. & Howley, C.B, 2004; Howley, C.B. & Howley, A.A., 2004, as cited in Howley & Howley, 2005, para. 15)
Another distinctive feature within a discourse community is to have a group leader with a high level of expertise. The leader must be in constant communication with the other members of the community. According to Lattuca (2005), as cited in Howley & Howley (2005), “. . . leaders might seek to establish cross-disciplinary learning communities within a school, an approach of recognized difficulty in higher education” (para. 20).
Sherer, Shea & Kristensen (2003), as cited in Howley & Howley (2005) claimed that “[s]ome experimental programs in higher education, however, suggest that a more promising approach for K-12 educators might involve the establishment of virtual learning communities that foster collegial dialog among subject-matter specialists across the distances that physically separate them” (para. 20).
Howley (2005) referred to “[g]rounded in management approaches such as Total Quality Management, . . .” The author meant that by being grounded, that is to say, by being fully immersed in the topic and academic knowledge, some strategies can be developed to help rural educators into the process of gaining academic development.
Extensive reading and writing inevitably results in a more solid cognitive development in teachers. The opportunity to develop their interests and skills in academic contexts will unavoidably reflect on their instruction and accordingly their students’ performance will be improved.
Reference
Howley, A., & Howley, C. (2005). High-quality teaching: Providing for rural teachers' professional development.
English for Academic Purposes and Study Skills: An outline
Purpose: To explain and categorise study skills and coverage of English for Academic Purposes.
Thesis statement: Members belonging to a same discourse community are to develop and master specific terminology.
Audience: Teachers, Academic Students and Academic Writers.
1. EAP (English for Academic Purposes) Definition
2. First recorded use of the term 1974
3. Coverage:
3.1. ESP (English for Specific Purposes) main strands:
3.1.1. English for Occupational Purposes (EOP)/English for Vocational Purposes (EVP)/English for Professional Purposes (EPP)
3.1.2. EAP (English for Academic Purposes) Divisions
3.1.2.1. Common core / study skills = EGAP
3.1.2.1.1. Study skills definition
3.1.2.2. Subject-specific = ESAP
3.1.2.2.1. Subject-specific or ESAP definition
3.2. TENOR – Teaching of English for No Obvious Reason or EGP (English for
General Purposes)
4. Range of settings:
4.1. Use in Higher Education studies
4.2. Use in Pre-departure courses
4.2.1 Pre-sessional Courses or in-sessional courses
4.2.1.1. Formal teaching programs
4.2.1.2. Self-access situations
4.2.1.3. Distance-learning materials
4.2.1.4. CALL (Computer-assisted language learning)
Thesis statement: Members belonging to a same discourse community are to develop and master specific terminology.
Audience: Teachers, Academic Students and Academic Writers.
1. EAP (English for Academic Purposes) Definition
2. First recorded use of the term 1974
3. Coverage:
3.1. ESP (English for Specific Purposes) main strands:
3.1.1. English for Occupational Purposes (EOP)/English for Vocational Purposes (EVP)/English for Professional Purposes (EPP)
3.1.2. EAP (English for Academic Purposes) Divisions
3.1.2.1. Common core / study skills = EGAP
3.1.2.1.1. Study skills definition
3.1.2.2. Subject-specific = ESAP
3.1.2.2.1. Subject-specific or ESAP definition
3.2. TENOR – Teaching of English for No Obvious Reason or EGP (English for
General Purposes)
4. Range of settings:
4.1. Use in Higher Education studies
4.2. Use in Pre-departure courses
4.2.1 Pre-sessional Courses or in-sessional courses
4.2.1.1. Formal teaching programs
4.2.1.2. Self-access situations
4.2.1.3. Distance-learning materials
4.2.1.4. CALL (Computer-assisted language learning)
Discourse community: A feeling of membership
Discourse community: A feeling of membership
A discourse community is said to be a group of people who utilise the same language, share an interest in certain topics and possess specific jargon for discussion.
According to Swales (1990, cited in Pintos, 2008), a discourse community should meet some basic requirements. In Swales’ (1997) book “English in academic and research settings”, he asserts that “a discourse community is seen as being composed of people who share similar linguistic rules” (p. 23). Thus, some basic criteria are to be present:
1. Participatory mechanisms and information exchange:
“The program aimed to: provide teachers with the confidence to connect what they do in their classrooms to research-informed practices; immerse teachers in a collaborative culture that allowed them to learn from one another as colleagues;…” (Wenzlaff, Terri L., Wieseman, Katherine C., 2004).
“Group work can be a viable means of promoting positive change and accomplishing tasks” (Hulse- Killacky, Kraus, & Shumaker, 1999, as cited in Wenzlaff, Terri L., Wieseman, Katherine C., 2004, para. 6).
“Initiated and facilitated by professionals other than school administrators, group work may be a key to meaningful, effective, sustained professional development and a necessary component of adult learning. A feeling of ownership and commitment through self-improvement allows ongoing teacher development to flourish” (Mycue, 2001, as cited Wenzlaff, Terri L., Wieseman, Katherine C., 2004, para. 6).
“Working in cohorts improves students' abilities to develop multiple perspectives, do scholarly work, and improve academic performance and personal expectations” (Hill, 1992, para. 7).
“Teachers should have "tons of time for collaboration [because they] have so much to learn from others" (high school English teacher). They should conference and share with peers as well as have opportunities to be self-directed.” (Wenzlaff, Terri L., Wieseman, Katherine C., 2004, para. 26).
2. Community-specific genres:
“This cohort, master's degree program was the result of a partnership between a large, urban institution that grants graduate degrees and an institution in a small, rural area that grants baccalaureate degrees and prepares teachers for initial licensure, …” (Wenzlaff, Terri L., Wieseman, Katherine C., 2004, para. 11).
3. Participatory mechanisms and common goals:
“Additionally, teachers engaged in professional discourse and group work through face-to-face study groups, electronic bulletin board discussions and electronic chat sessions” (Wenzlaff, Terri L., Wieseman, Katherine C., 2004, para. 15).
“The professors created the cohort-based program knowing that for a cohort to grow and prosper members must feel like a community of learners” (Wenzlaff, Terri L., Wieseman, Katherine C., 2004, para. 18).
4. Highly specialized terminology:
“Teachers responded to survey statements that focused on specific aspects of learning processes, . . . For these statements the teachers rated themselves using a Likert scale, ranging from absolutely true [AT] to mostly true [MT] to somewhat true [ST] to no clear opinion [NCO] (Wenzlaff, Terri L., Wieseman, Katherine C., 2004, para. 20).
“The graduate program totally supports teacher learning as AT or MT” (Wenzlaff, Terri L., Wieseman, Katherine C., 2004, para. 28).
While there is some debate regarding the definition of the term discourse community, Bizzell's (1992) definition seems comprehensive in scope. A discourse community, she says, "is a group of people who share certain language-using practices ... [that] can be seen as conventionalized" (p. 222) by social interactions within the group and by its dealings with outsiders.
5. Common goals:
Clark notes that the rhetoric of discourse communities "assumes that [its members] are more or less equal politically, that they have equal access to and equal influence upon the discourse that determines the beliefs and purposes they will share" (para. 8).
6. High level of expertise:
Zito (1984) argues that "an author is granted a certain binding authority to his intended meaning; this is legitimated by academic credentials, professional associations, and the division of knowledge within the academy" (Kelly-Kleese, 2004, para.9).
“Furthermore, says Zito (1984), within a discourse community, only those qualified by some socially institutionalized agency may engage in such discourse and be taken seriously.... The academic 'turf' [is] a battleground for the right to speak with authority" (Kelly-Kleese, 2004, para. 10).
So, why is it important for writers and orators to consider discourse community?
Discourse conveys a formal discussion in either speech or writing within a community. Understanding and participating in a discourse community implies being aware of specific terminology, jargon, acronyms, etc. As well as this, a member of a discourse community must be well acquainted with the interests and motivation of the audience addressed. Once the concept is understood, it can be applied to writing work or oral expositions and a rise in effectiveness will be noticeably perceived.
References
Kelly-Kleese, C. (2004). UCLA community college review: Community college scholarship and discourse. Community College Review.
Pintos, V. (2008). Unit 1: Building up a community of teachers and prospective teachers. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Swales, J. (1997). English in academic and research settings (4th ed.). United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
Wenslaff, T., & Wieseman, K. (2004). Teachers need to grow. Teacher Education
A discourse community is said to be a group of people who utilise the same language, share an interest in certain topics and possess specific jargon for discussion.
According to Swales (1990, cited in Pintos, 2008), a discourse community should meet some basic requirements. In Swales’ (1997) book “English in academic and research settings”, he asserts that “a discourse community is seen as being composed of people who share similar linguistic rules” (p. 23). Thus, some basic criteria are to be present:
1. Participatory mechanisms and information exchange:
“The program aimed to: provide teachers with the confidence to connect what they do in their classrooms to research-informed practices; immerse teachers in a collaborative culture that allowed them to learn from one another as colleagues;…” (Wenzlaff, Terri L., Wieseman, Katherine C., 2004).
“Group work can be a viable means of promoting positive change and accomplishing tasks” (Hulse- Killacky, Kraus, & Shumaker, 1999, as cited in Wenzlaff, Terri L., Wieseman, Katherine C., 2004, para. 6).
“Initiated and facilitated by professionals other than school administrators, group work may be a key to meaningful, effective, sustained professional development and a necessary component of adult learning. A feeling of ownership and commitment through self-improvement allows ongoing teacher development to flourish” (Mycue, 2001, as cited Wenzlaff, Terri L., Wieseman, Katherine C., 2004, para. 6).
“Working in cohorts improves students' abilities to develop multiple perspectives, do scholarly work, and improve academic performance and personal expectations” (Hill, 1992, para. 7).
“Teachers should have "tons of time for collaboration [because they] have so much to learn from others" (high school English teacher). They should conference and share with peers as well as have opportunities to be self-directed.” (Wenzlaff, Terri L., Wieseman, Katherine C., 2004, para. 26).
2. Community-specific genres:
“This cohort, master's degree program was the result of a partnership between a large, urban institution that grants graduate degrees and an institution in a small, rural area that grants baccalaureate degrees and prepares teachers for initial licensure, …” (Wenzlaff, Terri L., Wieseman, Katherine C., 2004, para. 11).
3. Participatory mechanisms and common goals:
“Additionally, teachers engaged in professional discourse and group work through face-to-face study groups, electronic bulletin board discussions and electronic chat sessions” (Wenzlaff, Terri L., Wieseman, Katherine C., 2004, para. 15).
“The professors created the cohort-based program knowing that for a cohort to grow and prosper members must feel like a community of learners” (Wenzlaff, Terri L., Wieseman, Katherine C., 2004, para. 18).
4. Highly specialized terminology:
“Teachers responded to survey statements that focused on specific aspects of learning processes, . . . For these statements the teachers rated themselves using a Likert scale, ranging from absolutely true [AT] to mostly true [MT] to somewhat true [ST] to no clear opinion [NCO] (Wenzlaff, Terri L., Wieseman, Katherine C., 2004, para. 20).
“The graduate program totally supports teacher learning as AT or MT” (Wenzlaff, Terri L., Wieseman, Katherine C., 2004, para. 28).
While there is some debate regarding the definition of the term discourse community, Bizzell's (1992) definition seems comprehensive in scope. A discourse community, she says, "is a group of people who share certain language-using practices ... [that] can be seen as conventionalized" (p. 222) by social interactions within the group and by its dealings with outsiders.
5. Common goals:
Clark notes that the rhetoric of discourse communities "assumes that [its members] are more or less equal politically, that they have equal access to and equal influence upon the discourse that determines the beliefs and purposes they will share" (para. 8).
6. High level of expertise:
Zito (1984) argues that "an author is granted a certain binding authority to his intended meaning; this is legitimated by academic credentials, professional associations, and the division of knowledge within the academy" (Kelly-Kleese, 2004, para.9).
“Furthermore, says Zito (1984), within a discourse community, only those qualified by some socially institutionalized agency may engage in such discourse and be taken seriously.... The academic 'turf' [is] a battleground for the right to speak with authority" (Kelly-Kleese, 2004, para. 10).
So, why is it important for writers and orators to consider discourse community?
Discourse conveys a formal discussion in either speech or writing within a community. Understanding and participating in a discourse community implies being aware of specific terminology, jargon, acronyms, etc. As well as this, a member of a discourse community must be well acquainted with the interests and motivation of the audience addressed. Once the concept is understood, it can be applied to writing work or oral expositions and a rise in effectiveness will be noticeably perceived.
References
Kelly-Kleese, C. (2004). UCLA community college review: Community college scholarship and discourse. Community College Review.
Pintos, V. (2008). Unit 1: Building up a community of teachers and prospective teachers. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Swales, J. (1997). English in academic and research settings (4th ed.). United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
Wenslaff, T., & Wieseman, K. (2004). Teachers need to grow. Teacher Education
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